REFLECTIONS IN A CHINESE EYE

Does China's 'superb' tolerance extend to imprisoned and tortured Falun Gong practitioners?

WARNING: GRAPHIC
CONTENT

Flicking through newspapers I missed while on holiday, I’ve come across an article in The Telegraph by Liu Xiaoming, Chinese Ambassador to Britain, under the heading ‘Tibet is a better place than it used to be’ (26/07). In it, he implies that Westerners are basically dummies whose ‘...knowledge of Tibet stops at the fictional Shangri-La and the so-called Han invasion’. He adds that, contrary to what many of us seem to think, China demonstrates ‘a superb example of religious diversity and tolerance’ that would seem to rival Eden itself.

Logically, Mr Xiaoming’s dewy-eyed fondness for the ‘throngs of pilgrims of different ethnic groups’ who pray for blessings at holy sites, and his newly-announced appreciation of Tibetan culture ‘including Buddhism’ must mean that the Communist Party’s ideology that ‘Religion is poison’ no longer holds sway?

It would also seem fair to suppose that this ‘superb’ tolerance extends to all other spiritual groups – i.e. the Christians, Muslim Uighurs and particularly, Falun Gong – a discipline of meditation and slow exercise routines that came into being in the early '90s. 

Read more at The Daily Mail.

 

When you read this, you're on your own as far as veracity is concerned.  There is a long history of false stories by the Falung Gong, aimed at improving their image and to undermine the Chinese government.

Yiwu is the 'fastest growing Muslim community' in China

YIWU, CHINA // Go back little more than a decade, and a group of Muslim residents in Yiwu, a city in eastern China, had to rent a hotel room so that they would have somewhere to pray.

As their numbers increased from about 100, they moved to a rented car park - but soon they had outgrown that, too, and worshippers spilt into the nearby street.

Today, the finishing touches are being put on a 25 million yuan (Dh14.4 million) mosque that is already being used by Yiwu's Chinese, Arab and South Asian Muslim residents and visitors.

Yet despite the construction of the mosque, one thing has not changed. Such has been the growth of the city's Muslim population that at busy periods, there is still not enough room for everyone inside and some worshippers have to find space outside to pray.

Read more at The National

 

China's Catholics Go to Camp

By JILLIAN
KAY MELCHIOR

While thousands of American teenagers have spent their summers at expensive
camps that allow them to have fun outdoors, students in Rui'an city in China's
eastern Zhejiang province did something simple and soulful this summer: They
attended a Catholic summer course.

Maria, a high school senior, last year attended such a course offered by An
Yang Parish in her hometown Rui'an, and she loved it. Her social skills and her
emotional health improved, she said. She wasn't the only one who liked it. When
the parish, which is part of Wenzhou city's diocese, launched a large-scale
youth program last year, 430 students attended. Otherwise, the parish has only
about 320 members.

Nuns and parishioners volunteered to teach the week-long intensive Bible
study courses. Rosa Chen, a laywoman who helps run the program, said, "For
Catholic parents, they cherish the opportunity to send their children here."

While the demand is there to sustain the program, the parents don't know if
the camp will be open next year. The government has long limited religious
training for children, which makes the program's continuation precarious.

Read more at The Wall Street Journal

Chinese Martyrs of the Boxer Rebellion

Chinese Martyrs is a name given to a number of members of the Catholic  and the Eastern Orthodox Churches who were killed in China during the 19th and early 20th centuries. They are celebrated as martyrs by their respective churches. Most were Chinese laity, but others were missionaries from various other countries; many of them died during the Boxer Rebellion.

The Eastern Orthodox Church recognizes 222 Albazinians (Chinese of Russian descent) who died during the Boxer Rebellion as "Holy Martyrs of China." They were mostly members of the Chinese Orthodox Church, which had been founded by Russian Orthodox missionaries in the 17th century and maintained close relations with them, especially in the large Russian community in Harbin. They are called new-martyrs, as they died under a modern regime. The first of these martyrs was Metrophanes, Chi Sung.

The Roman Catholic Church recognizes 120 Catholics who died between 1648 and 1930 as its "Martyr Saints of China". They were canonized by Pope John Paul II on 1 October 2000. Of the group, 87 were Chinese laypeople and 33 were missionaries; 86 died during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900. The Chinese Martyrs Catholic Church in Toronto, Ontario is named for them. Many Protestant Christians also died during the Uprising, including the "China Martyrs of 1900", but there is no formal veneration or a universally recognized list. 

Metrophanes

Metrophanes, Chi Sung (his Chinese name is also sometimes translated as Tsi Chung) or Mitrophan (December 10, 1855 – June 11, 1900) was the first Chinese Eastern Orthodox priest to be martyred. He was killed with his family members and church followers in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion. He is the best known of some 222 Holy Chinese Martyrs glorified in August 2000 by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Metrophanes was stabbed in the chest by a crowd of rebels. Also considered martyrs are his wife Tatiana, whose Chinese name was Li, his sons, twenty-three year-old Isaiah and eight-year-old John, and Isaiah's nineteen-year-old fiancee Maria, who were all killed with him.

Metrophanes was raised by his mother, Marina, and grandmother, Ekaterina, after his father died when he was a child. He was a shy, unassuming man who was educated for the priesthood at a Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in China. Church authorities urged him to become a priest, but they persuaded him to do so with difficulty because he didn't believe he had the talents necessary. "A man of poor talent and little virtue, how dare I accept this great rank?" he said. Metrophanes was ordained by Nikolai, Bishop of Japan in 1880. He helped with translation of liturgical books into Chinese from Russian and proofreading. Eventually he suffered a breakdown and settled outside the mission, receiving half of his salary. Many people took advantage of his goodwill or mocked him.

During the Boxer Rebellion, the Boxers burned down his print shop and church site. He tried to encourage fellow members of the church during the rebellion. On the night of June 10, rebels surrounded his house and killed Metrophanes along with many of the 70 people inside. Metrophanes was stabbed to death under a date tree.

Source: Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrophanes,_Chi_Sung  

Read more at voices

 

US urges China to resume dialogue with the Dalai Lama

By Tendar Tsering

DHARAMSHALA, October 14: Amidst a fiery episode of self-immolations inside Tibet and growing protests by Tibetans in exile, a group of US Senators, Members of House of Representatives and senior officials appointed by President Obama has called on the Chinese government to resume dialogue with the Dalai Lama.

The Congressional Executive Commission on China in its annual report released on Wednesday said "the Dalai Lama’s withdrawal from exiled Tibetan administrative affairs has the potential to alter dialogue dynamics by eliminating the basis for the government and Party to characterise him as a ‘political’ figure."

The US report urged the Chinese government to engage in substantive dialogue with the Dalai Lama or his representatives on protecting Tibetan culture, language, religion and heritage.

Referring to the sequence of self-immolation cases inside Tibet, the 2011 report pointed out that dialogue can result in a durable and mutually beneficial outcome for the Chinese government and Tibetans, and improve the outlook for local and regional security in coming decades.

Read more at Phayul

Tibet monks self-immolate over China wanting to choose Dalai Lama

Beijing - Two Tibetan monks have set themselves on fire as a protest against the Chinese government's tight controls over Buddhist practices. The two monks have suffered slight burns and are in stable condition.

In the Sichuan province’s Aba prefecture, an ethnic Tibetan part of the province that consists of those who advocate self-rule, two 18-year-old Kirti monastery monks self-immolated Monday in protest of the Chinese government’s crackdown and controls over Buddhist customs and traditions.

London’s Free Tibet campaign emailed the Associated Press and said the monks called for religious freedom and shouted “long live the Dalai Lama” before they set themselves on fire. They suffered slight burns and are in stable condition.

Reporters immediately called the Kirti Monastery's Administration Committee. One individual answered a call and said that he was unaware of the incident and was not aware of any reports citing such information. He refused to provide his name.

Kanyag Tsering, a Tibetan monk that belongs to the Kirti monastery in the Indian town of Dharamsala, told Reuters India that he has received information from 10 sources within Aba and the monastery and eyewitnesses that Chinese military authorities removed the bodies of the two monks.

Xinhua reports that the suicide attempt is under investigation. Protests in the region have increased after the Chinese government said it will select the next Dalai Lama. Beijing views the Dalai Lama as a separatist and wants to choose someone who is more pro-China.

Read more: http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/311982#ixzz1Z59LfYju

The Party and China’s ‘Five Religions’ in Two-Man Comedy Skit

Followers of China's five state-approved religions, in an unprecedented display of solidarity, appeared on stage together to sing red Party songs ahead of the officially atheist Chinese communist regime's 90th anniversary on July 1, 2011. (Weibo.com)

The U.S. State Department issued its Annual Report on International Religious Freedom on Sept. 13, and once again pointed out that the Chinese Communist authorities seriously violate religious freedom. In response, the secretary generals of the five [state approved] religions in China jointly issued a statement, “demanding that the U.S. stop the use of religion to interfere in other countries’ internal affairs.”

When I read the report on people.com on Sept. 16, I could not help but feel humored. When the U.S. government criticizes the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the majority of religious believers in China stand to benefit. However, the five religious heads did not show the slightest appreciation, but rather banded together to defend the CCP. It makes one ponder the true identities of these so-called religious figureheads.

I would definitely have taken their statement as having come directly from the CCP’s propaganda department, if it had not clearly said that it was a joint statement by the five religions. The statement is full of Communist Party jargon, such as “arbitrarily distorting” (the facts), and “the Chinese government firmly carries out religious freedom,” and so on.

Jiang Yu, the spokesperson for the Chinese Foreign Ministry, can take this statement straight to the reporters; she doesn’t have to change a single word.

The five religions in China—Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and protestant Christianity—have rarely had anything to do with each other. They don’t even recognize one another. But under the CCP’s regime they suddenly become “united” in support of the CCP, jointly publishing a statement and even singing “red songs” together on stage.

Maybe one day the portraits of Marx, Lenin, Mao, Deng, and Jiang Zemin will hang in Buddhist and Taoist temples and in churches—who knows?

If what the statement says is true, we can only draw one conclusion: all is well with religious freedom in China!

But is it? Is the Catholic archbishop appointed by the CCP recognized by the Pope? Does the CCP dare to admit its suppression of China’s Christian house churches?

Arrests and persecution of Tibetan Buddhist monks have long been known to the world. Confronted by inquiries [regarding the persecution] of Falun Gong practitioners, dare any of the CCP officials publicly respond to the international community?

China once created a splendid culture due, in part, to the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. It was because of these religions that Chinese people’s moral standard maintained a high level throughout their long history.

However, when the CCP seized power, it burned scriptures, destroyed temples and churches, and smashed Buddha statues. It destroyed religions by all means. Later, to keep up appearances in the eyes of the international community, it raised up many religious figures who showed loyalty to the CCP.

One such example is Shi Yongxin, the abbot of Shaolin Temple. Who would think of him as a sincere monk? The swimsuit catwalk in front of Shaolin Temple is definitely another wonder of the world.

After reading the statement by the heads of the five religions on people.com, another article about Jia Qinglin, the fourth ranking member of the CCP, caught my attention. Jia sent a congratulatory message to the Chinese Islamic Association for holding the 9th National Conference.

I would like to quote a couple of passages from that article: “Jia Qinglin hoped that the new leadership of the Islamic Association of China can learn in depth, and carry out thoroughly, the spirit of the important speech that comrade Hu Jintao made on July 1, and insist on the CCP’s basic policy on religious work ... Continue to vigorously carry forward the glorious tradition of patriotism and faith loving. Firmly and unswervingly support the leadership of the CCP.”

What should one be thinking after reading these passages?

Read the original Chinese article.

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Hong Xiuquan and Protestant Hymns

Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864), who thought he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, became exposed to Protestant hymns while in Canton in 1847 seeking instruction in the Bible from I. J. Roberts (1802-1871), a Baptist minister born in Sumner County, Tennessee. Roberts began his work in China in early 1837 as a missionary under the aegis of the Roberts Fund Society.

Much of Hong’s encounters with Christian tracts came through translations of Robert Morrison. In 1866 Augutus F. Lindley wrote that after Hong and his cousin Li Jingfang familiarised themselves with translations of chapters of the Bible by Morrison, they 'administered baptism to each other' and then Hong Xiuquan composed the following ode upon repentance:

When our transgressions high as heaven rise,
How well to trust Jesus’ full atonement;
We follow not the demons, we obey
The holy precepts, worshipping alone
One God, and thus we cultivate our hearts.
The heavenly glories open to our view,
And every being ought to seek thereafter.
I much deplore the miseries of hell.
O turn ye to the fruits of true repentance!
Let not our hearts be led by worldly customs (Lindley, 1866:41)


Hong later adopted the Protestant hymn ‘Old Hundredth’ as his own apocalyptic vision of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. A new text was written for the hymn and renamed ‘Ode Praising the Heavenly Kingdom’ (Tianchao zanmeige):

Praise the Lord
Praise Jesus, the Savior of the World
Praise the Holy Spirit
Praise the Holy Trinity.


While 'Ode to the Heavenly Kingdom was sung at all Taiping rituals and rallies, we know very little about the organisation and structure of their religious observances. In his book The Visions of Hung-siu-tshuen, and Origin of the Kwang-si Insurrection published in Hong Kong in 1854, and republished the following year in London in a slim volume titled The Chinese Rebel Chief, Hung-siu-Tsuen and the Origin of the Insurrection in China, Theodore Hamberg writes:

Read more at an imperfect pen

Hong Xiuquan: Jesus Christ's Younger Brother

 

My hand grasps the killing power in Heaven and earth;

To behead the evil ones, spare the just,

And ease the people's sorrow.

HONG XIUQUAN

 

As it had for millenia, success in nineteenth century China lay in a cushy civil service job, obtainable only through a series of tests of horrifying difficulty. Most men with ambition took and failed at least one in their life. Hong Xiuquan was one such social climber: he took the exams in 1827, 1836, 1837, and 1843, all to no avail. Hong was so upset with his third failure in 1837 that he fell ill for several days and had a strange, beatific vision.[1] In it elderly women washed the filth off his body, wizened men replaced his dirty internal organs with brand spanking new ones, and he met grandiose-looking people claiming to be his relatives.

Hong discarded the episode as a case of the pink elephants and, in 1843, he re-took and re-flunked the exam. After his fourth and final failure he wandered home and happened upon a Chinese translation of the Bible. It immediately became clear to Hong that the grandiose relatives in his dream were none other than the Judeo-Christian God and Jesus Christ, making Hong Christ's younger brother. Hong seized this new divine identity, unofficially baptized himself, and scurried about evangelizing. Before long, he needed more than the verses contained in his text to continue his work. In Dragon by the Tail, John Paton Davies Jr. details the proceedings for us:

In search of further guidance, Hong spent two months with an American Baptist missionary, the Reverend Issachar Jacox Roberts, receiving scriptural instruction. Leaving before he was ready for baptism -- on which score the Reverend Mr. Roberts was quite right -- Hong returned to his native place near Canton. There he and his followers, now calling themselves God Worshipers, made themselves socially unacceptable by smashing idols and Hong lost his position as schoolmaster.[2]

In Resistance, Chaos and Control in China, Robert P. Weller gives a little more detail:

[Hong's movement] typically destroyed popular temples and desecrated the god images, often by tearing off their beards... While Hong may well have seen this as a bold blow at the heart of popular idolatry and superstition, god destruction was in fact always a perfectly plausible option within popular religious practice.

At the time, deities were plentiful and the existence of a few extra ones didn't cause any commotion. The god-worshiper relationship in China was a reciprocal one: if your particular god didn't bother to respond to your prayers, you had no obligation to continue worshiping him. Hence, all sorts of acts that might appear heretical to the outsider were quite acceptable. "Impotent deities might be broken to bits, burnt, or set floating down the river by angry crowds."[3]

Hong had a couple of favorite targets and managed to swell his own ranks by hitting them. At the local King Gan temple, Hong ordered his followers to "dig out the eyes of the demon, cut off its beard, trample its hat, tear its embroidered dragon gown to shreds, turn its body upside down, and cut off its arms."[4] While Hong no doubt felt such denouncement of false deities furthered Christianity, Gan's followers shrugged and picked up the pieces. They did not, as Hong hoped, abandon King Gan; they simply acknowledged the brute force of Hong's own god and continued in their own pagan worship.

Read more at History House

 

 

Zen of Vegetable Roots "Caigentan"

Hold your principles as firm as the nine Dings of Taishan, 
then blame shall not fall upon you. 
Treat everything as fallen petals in flowing water. 
Let them disappear and you will find fun.

 

People know how to read a book with words but not a book without words.  People know how to play a stringed instrument, but not one without strings. 

If you only know how to recognize something practical and nothing spiritual, how can you appreciate the wonders of music and books.

Asiawind

The Monks of Kubla Khan

Text based on Budge, E.A. Wallis. The Monk of Kublai Khan, Emperor of China; or The History of the Life and Travels of Rabban Sawma, Envoy and Plenipotentiary of the Mongol Khans to the Kings of Europe and Markos who as Yahbh-Allaha III Became Patriarch of the Nestorian Church in Asia. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1928.

Bar Sauma

 

Brief Biography: Bar Sauma, born in Tai-tu (Northern China) about 1260, was a descendant of the Onggud Turks who joined the Mongols early in the reign of Chinggis Khan. Like other Onggud Turks, his family were members of the Nestorian church, the most active Christian church in Central Asia. By the age of twenty-five, Sauma had taken vows to become a Nestorian monk and built a cell to meditate in isolation. Able to read Syraic, Turkic, and possibly Chinese, he was well-educated as well as pious. Fired by a zeal to visit Nestorian monuments in the Middle East and Jerusalem, Sauma and his student Markos, later to become the patriarch and leader of the Nestorian church centered in Baghdad, set out on their arduous pilgrimage sometime before 1278. They reached the Mongol territories in Persia, but were unable to continue their journey to Jerusalem because of the political situation. Instead Sauma eventually found himself appointed to a diplomatic mission which would take him to Constantinople, Genoa, Paris, Bordeaux, and Rome and which would involve negotiations for joint operations to force the Mamluks of Egypt out of the Holy Land. He died in Baghdad in 1313 without reaching Jerusalem.

Brief Itinerary: Leaving Taitu shortly after Marco Polo arrived in China, Sauma and Markos followed the Yellow River southwest to Ningxia. From there, they took the southern silk road below the Taklamakan Desert passing through Miran and following a course along the Chenchen river for about 500 miles to Khotan. The section of their travel from Ningxia to Khotan took two months. They proceeded to Kashgar, Talas, and Tus, the Ilykhan capital of Khurasan, Maragha, and finally Baghdad. From there the two men travelled to Nestorian centers in Beth Garmai, Arbil, Mosul, and back to Baghdad. From there they went to Tabriz and Ani, and then headed to port cities abong the Black Sea. At this point Armenian and Georgian friends advised them of the great danger of trying to reach the Holy Land, so they return to Maragha.

Syrian translator's Prayer and Preface omitted.

CHAPTER I.

THE HISTORY OF RABBAN SAWMA.

There was a certain man who was a believer, and he was a nobleman and a fearer of God. He was rich in the things of this world, and he was well endowed with the qualities of nature; he belonged to a famous family and a well-known tribe. His name was SHIBAN the Sa'ora (i.e. the Inspector or Visitor--Periodeutes). He dwelt in the city which is called KHAN BALIGH or KHAN BALIK (i.e. Pekin), that is to say (4) the royal city in the country of the East. He married according to the law a woman whose name was KEYAMTA. And when they had lived together for a long time, and they had no heir, they prayed to God continually and besought Him with frequent supplications not to deprive them of a son who would continue [their] race. And He who giveth comfort in His gracious mercy received their petition, and He showed them compassion. For it is His wont to receive the entreaty of those who are broken of heart, and-to hearken unto the groaning of those who make supplications and petitions [to Him]. " Everyone who asketh

HISTORY OF RABBAN SAWMA 125

receiveth; and he who seeketh findeth, and to him that knocketh it is opened to him " (Matt. vii. 8), He said, confidently concerning the certain hope. And behold, this is performed for both orders (i.e. sexes), namely, men and women, when petitions are presented with a right intention. For behold, Hanna, the wife of Halkana was not prohibited, seeing that she made entreaty with a right object (I Sam. i. 10 ff.), and the wife of Menokh (Manoah) was not rejected, and she received the angel readily in her chamber (Judges xiii. 2 f.).

Now God made the spirit of conception to breathe upon the woman Keyamta, and she brought forth a (5) son, and they called his name " SAWMA" [i.e. the son who was obtained by fasting; his full name was " BAR SAWMA," i.e.; the " son of the fast."]. And they rejoiced [with] a great joy, neighbours of his family and his relations rejoiced at his birth.

And when they had brought him (after a praiseworthy system of education) to the period when he was capable of receiving instruction, they handed him over to a worthy teacher, and before him (i.e. under his direction) they trained him diligently in ecclesiastical learning; and they betrothed him to a maiden and rejoiced in him. He was held to be worthy to receive the grade of priest, and he was numbered among the ranks (?) of the clergy, and he became Keeper in

126 THE MONKS OF KUBLAI KHAN

the church of above-mentioned city. He led a life of strict chastity and humility, and he devoted himself with great diligence to the acquisition of spiritual excellences, and he struggled to make himself fit for the things of the world which is to come. And when he was twenty years of age the divine fire was kindled in his heart, and it burned up the brambles (or thorny growth) of sin, and cleansed his chaste soul from impurity and contamination of every kind. For he preferred more than any other thing whatsoever the love of his Lord, and, grasping the plough, he was unwilling to look behind him (Luke ix. 62). He cast away forthwith the shadow of the world, and renounced straightway the desirable things thereof. (6) He esteemed dainty meats as things which had no existence, and he rejected wholly the drinks which make a man drunk.

Now when his parents perceived this, great pain overtook them, and acute sorrow cleaved to them, because their only son was separating himself from them. They rose up and with broken hearts made supplication to him, and brought before him promises of things of this world, saying, "Why, O our precious son, is separation from us beloved by thee? How is it that our affliction is desired by thee? Why is our mourning sweet in thy sight? Consider now. To whom will our wealth revert? Think, who is our heir? Ponder well who will be the master of the [produce of] our toil?

HISTORY OF RABBAN SAWMA 127

How can it possibly be pleasing to thee for our seed and name to be blotted out? Why doth the thought of thy heart suggest that strangers should be our heirs?" And having persuaded him with tears in this manner, and having stirred up grief in him by their lamentation and talk similar [to that given above], he hearkened to them outwardly, and dwelt with them as far as his body was concerned, but very unwillingly. And during the three years in which he ministered to his parents according to the body, he never (7) ceased from his toil, and he contended continually in his laborious career.

And when [his parents] saw that their exhortations were of no avail, and that, in comparison with the love of Christ, their words were accounted as nothing, they left him to perform his desire. Then he divided all his possessions, that is to say, his apparel and his clothing generally (or furniture), among the poor, and took the garb of the monk; and he received the tonsure from the holy and pious father, Mar Giwargis (George) the Metropolitan. And he began to toil in the vineyard of his Lord with the hope of the kingdom which is to come, and the confidence the possession of heavenly happiness, and that he would receive the whole dinar as his wages. (Matt. xx. 1-16). He set apart a cell for himself and he shut himself up therein seven years; and after that [period] he decided to remove

128 THE MONKS OF KUBLAI KHAN

himself from the children of men, and to practice himself in the ascetic life in the mountain, in a place which was wholly isolated, so that he might rest there [undisturbed] in his life as a recluse. Then he set out and went a journey of one day from their [i.e. his parents'] city, and he elected to dwell there. And he found (8) a certain place where there was a cave, and there was by the side of it in that mountain a spring of water. And he dwelt there peacefully and thanked his Lord, which held him to be so worthy that at length the report of him went forth in that region, and men used to gather together about him to hear his words, and honour was set apart for him (i.e. ascribed to him) by every man.

 

CHAPTER II.

THE HISTORY OF MAR YAHBH-ALLAHA,

THE CATHOLICUS AND PATRIARCH OF THE EAST.

In the foreknowledge of God everything is known. And the thoughts of the children of men, whether they belong to the right hand (i.e. be good), or whether they belong to the left hand (i.e. be bad), all of them, even before they are formed in the breast, are revealed unto Him. He therefore, in accordance with their character, elects and makes righteous [if they be good], and because of them [if they be bad] He chastiseth and punisheth. Now unto Moses it was said, "Behold, I have given thee [as] God to Pharaoh." (Exod. vii. I). And his election maketh known concerning the good disposition [of Moses] (9) and the hardness of the heart of Pharaoh. For even before Pharaoh existed, it was known [to God] that he would be hard: [of heart], and he was rejected. For unto Jeremiah God said, " Before I had formed thee in the belly I knew thee, 'and before thou didst go forth from the womb I sanctified thee and gave thee to be a prophet to the nations" (Jer. i. 5). And Paul said, "God hath not cast aside His people who from the very beginning were known to Him" (Rom. xi. I, 2),

130 THE MONKS OF KUBLAI KHAN

because assuredly, of [their] good will and pure thoughts. Now, certain characteristics of election make themselves visible in the person of him that is elected, and certain radiances shine forth from him which makes known that he is worthy of grace. The man who hath an enlightened mind perceiveth these, but the man who hath not an understanding mind knoweth them not. Since the person about whom we are going to speak was elected because of his superior discipline (or, exalted life), it is necessary for us to describe the manner of his election, and show how of a certainty it contributed to the perfect will.

There was, in the city of KAWSHANG, of the country of the East, a certain righteous and believing man (10), pure and spotless, who served God continually in His church, and observed His laws strictly and carefully. [The city of Kawshang, i.e. Kung-Tschang lay between Pekin and Tangut, and was about fifteen days' journey from the former city. Chabot would identify it with Ho-tchung-fu in the province of Shan-si.] His name was BAYNIEL; he was an archdeacon and he had four sons. The youngest of them [who was born in the year of our Lord 1245] was called MARKOS (Mark), and he was trained in ecclesiastical learning more than all his brethren……….

[The text is defective here, or some words have been omitted.]

HISTORY OF YAHBH-ALLAHA 131

and they admonished (or exhorted) him concerning these and much like matters, and it seemed to them that they might be talking rather to a statue than to a rational man. But even after suffering affliction in many ways he did not turn back from his course, and his mind did not resist from its quest. On the contrary he made straight his aim, and after fifteen days of great labour he arrived at the place where RABBAN SAWMA was. And he gave the salutation of peace to RABBAN SAWMA, who rejoiced in him and received him gladly.

And after MARK had rested and was refreshed RABBAN SAWMA asked him, saying, "My son, whence comest thou? And how did it happen to thee that thou hast come to this mountain? (11) In what city do thy kinsfolk dwell? Who is thy father, and whose son art thou? "

And MARK answered him, saying, " I am the son of Bayniel the archdeacon of the city of Kawshang, and I am called ' Mark.' "

And RABBAN SAWMA said unto him, "What is thy reason for coming to me with such labour and fatigue?" And MARK said unto him, "I wish to become a monk (or anchorite). Because I heard the report of thee I dropped everything and have sought thee; deprive me not of my desire." And RABBAN SAWMA said unto him, "O our brother, this path is difficult. Even the old [and experienced] monks endure the hardness

132 THE MONKS OF KUBLAI KHAN

thereof with the greatest difficulty; shall I permit youths and children to Journey on it?" And having besought him for many reasons to return to his parents, and MARK having refused to do so, RABBAN SAWMA admitted him [to his cell] and taught him; and he clothed him in a woollen garment, and made him to labour in the ascetic life. After three years MARK received the tonsure, that is to say the garb of the monk, from the pious Metropolitan MAR NESTORIS (Nestorius) on the first day of the week, or the Sunday [when the prayer beginning] "Rukha Paraklita" is said. And he continued to perform many ascetic labours and kept the fasts which lasted all day until the evening. And [the monks] in that mountain used to toil in (12) the cultivation of purity and holiness, and they were comforted by God unto Whom they had committed their souls.

CHAPTER III.

RABBAN SAWMA AND RABBAN MARKOS WISH

TO GO

TO JERUSALEM

One day they meditated, saying, "It would be exceedingly helpful to us if we were to leave this region and set out for the West, for we could then [visit] the tombs of the holy martyrs and Catholic Fathers and be blessed [by them]. And if Christ, the Lord of the Universe, prolonged our lives, and sustained us by His grace, we could go to Jerusalem, so that we might receive complete pardon for our offences, and absolution for our sins of foolishness. Now although RABBAN SAWMA opposed RABBAN MARK, and [tried to] frighten him with the toil of the journey, and the fatigue of travelling, and the terror of the ways, and the tribulations that would beset him in a (13) foreign country, RABBAN MARK burned to set out on the road. His mind seemed to reveal to him that there were treasures laid up for him in the West, and he pressed RABBAN SAWMA with his words, and importuned him to depart. And the two of them having agreed together that neither of them should be separated from his companion, even if one of them might have to

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submit to what was evil for his sake, they rose up and distributed their furniture, and the objects which they used in everyday life, among the poor, and they went to that city (i.e. Pekin) so that they might take companions for the journey [i.e. join a caravan] and provide themselves with food for the way.

Now when the Christians who were living there became acquainted with them, and knew their intention, they gathered together about them so that they might make them abandon their plan. And they said [unto them}, "Peradventure ye do not know how very far off that region is to which ye would go? Or, perhaps ye have not the least idea in your minds, or have forgotten, how difficult it will be for you to travel over the roads, and that ye will never reach there? Nay, sit ye down here, and strive to perform the works whereunto ye have been called. For it is said, 'The kingdom of heaven is within you'" (Luke xvii. 21). And RABBAN SAWMA and RABBAN MARK replied, "It is a long time since we (14) put on the garb of the monastic life, and we have renounced the world; we consider ourselves to be dead men in respect of it. Toil doth not terrify us, neither doth fear disturb us. There is, however, one thing which we ask of you: for the love of Christ pray for us. And ye shall cast away the word which would produce doubt (or hesitation), and shall make supplication to God that our desire may be

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fulfilled." [And the Christians of that city] said, "Depart in peace." And they kissed each other, and parted with bitter tears and distressful words, saying, "Depart in peace. And may our Lord, Whom ye seek, be with you, and may He allot to you that which is pleasing to Him, and will be of help to you! Amen."

And RABBAN SAWMA and RABBAN MARK came to the city of KAWSHANG. And when the people of the city and the parents of RABBAN MARK heard that these two monks had come there, they went out to meet them with joy, and they welcomed them with gladness and delight, and they escorted them into the church with great honour. And they enquired of them how they had come to make the journey thither. Now they thought that the two monks were going to tarry with them, and that RABBAN MARK had done so in order that he might be near the people of his family (I5). And when they knew of a certainty that they were going to Jerusalem, and that they had made their plan to travel to the West, they suffered greatly and were sorely afflicted.

And the report of the arrival of the two monks reached the lords of that city, KONBOGHA (i.e. Sun-worshipper) and IFOGHA (or IBOGHA) (i.e. Moon-worshipper), the sons-in-law of the King of Kings, KUBLAI KHAN (Plate XII), and as soon as they heard the report they sent messengers and had

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the two monks brought to the Camp. And they received them with gladness, and the fire of love for them burned in their breasts. And when the Lords knew that they were "going to flee from us," they began to say unto them, "Why are ye leaving this country of ours and going to the West? For we have taken very great trouble to draw hither monks and fathers from the West. How can we allow you to go away?" RABBAN SAWMA said unto them, "We (16) have cast away the world. And as long as we live in the society of men there will be no peace to us. Therefore it is right that we should flee because of the love of Christ, Who gave Himself unto death for our redemption. Whatsoever is in the world we have cast behind us. Although your love moveth us not to depart, and your gracious goodness would hold us fast, and your alms are bestowed upon us lavishly; and although it is grateful to us to sojourn with you, we remember the Lord's word which saith, 'What shall it profit a man if he possess the whole world and lose his soul? And what shall a man give as a substitute for his soul?' (Matt. xvi. 26). We earnestly desire the separation, but wherever we shall be we shall always remember, according to our feebleness, both by night and by day, your kingdom in [our] prayers."

And when the Lords of the city saw that their words had no effect upon them, and that they would

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not yield to their persuasion, they selected for them gifts, namely, beasts on which to ride, and gold, and silver, and wearing apparel [and rugs]. Then the two monks said, "We have no need of any [of these things]. For what can we do with these possessions? (17) And how can we possibly carry such a weight [as] this?" And the kings mentioned above replied, "Ye have no knowledge of the length of this journey, and the expenses which it demands. We, however, do know, and we advise you not to set out empty [handed]; if ye do ye will be unable to arrive at the place which ye have decided to be your destination. Accept then these gifts from us as a loan (or trust), and if some occasion of necessity should befall you, spend what ye need from them; if, on the other hand, the necessity does not arise, and ye arrive safe and sound, distribute them among the monasteries and habitations of the monks which are there, and the Fathers (i.e. Bishops), so that we may enjoy association with our Western Fathers. For it is said, 'Let your superfluity be [a supply] for those who are in want' " (2 Cor. viii. 13). Then the two monks, seeing that the kings were giving with a sincere heart, accepted what they gave to them. And they bade farewell to them sorrowfully, and they shed tears wherewith joy was mingled.

And they came from thence to the city of TANGOTH [i.e. TANGKUT, or TANGAT, or THANGCHU,

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a country in Central Asia; its capital was HIATCHEU, or NING-HIA-FU]. When the people of that city heard (18) that RABBAN SAWMA and RABBAN MARK had come there in order to go to Jerusalem, they went forth eagerly to meet them, that is to say, old men and women, young men and youths, and boys and young children, for the people of TANGOTH were ardent believers, and their minds were pure. And they loaded the two monks with gifts of every kind, and they received their blessings, and a crowd escorted them on their way, and shed tears, saying, "The Lord Who hath elected you to the honour of His service shall Himself be with you. Amen."

And from there they went to the country of LOTON [? KHOTAN, or HO-THIAN, or YUTHIAN, a city between TANGOTH and KASHGAR], a toilsome and fatiguing journey of two months; the region was a bare and barren desert and it was without inhabitants, because its waters were bitter, and no crops are sown there. And on the whole journey there were only eight days when, with the greatest difficulty, was sweet water found which the travellers could carry with them.(1) And in the days when they arrived at LOTON it happened that a war was raging between the King of Kings (19) KUBLAI KHAN and King OKO ['O-'ho, Commander-in-chief of the army of Mien?].

---

(1) Or perhaps the meaning is, "was sweet water found wherewith to load (i.e. to fill) the water-skins."

---

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And OKO had fled from him and had entered [this] country, and destroyed thousands of men therein. The caravan roads and ways had been cut, and grain (?) was scarce and could not be found; and many died of hunger and perished through want.

And after six months the two monks went forth from that place and came to the country of KASHKAR [or KASHGAR, a city on the frontiers of CHINA and TURKESTAN]. And they saw that the city was empty of its inhabitants, because it had been already plundered by the enemy. And because the aim of the monks was right, and they pleased God with all their hearts, He delivered them from every affliction, and no suffering attacked them, and He saved them from obstructions by highway robbers and thieves.

And they came to the place where King KAIDO [a nephew of KUBLAI KHAN] was encamped by the Teleos (i.e. TALAS). And they went into his presence, and prayed that his life would be preserved, and they blessed his kingdom, and they asked him for a written order so that no man in his country might do them harm. And with the greatest difficulty (20) and in a state of exhaustion whereto fear was added, they arrived at KHORASAN, [a province of north-eastern Persia, which lay between Persian 'Irak and Afghanistan]. Having lost the greater part of what they had on the road, they went to the monastery of Saint MAR SEHYON,

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which was in the neighbourhood of the city of TUS [the capital of KHORASAN], and they were blessed by the bishop who lived therein and by the monks. And they thought (i.e. felt) that they had been born into the world anew, and they gave thanks unto God in Whom they had trusted; they had placed their hope in Him, and had been delivered, for He is the sustainer and helper of every one who maketh entreaty unto Him.

And having enjoyed the conversation of those brethren they set out to go to ADHORBIJAN [a frontier province of Persia, on the north-west], so that they might travel from there to BAGHDAD, to MAR DENHA, the Catholicus [he succeeded MAKIKA A.GR. I577=A.D. 1266, according to Bar Hebraeus, Chron. Eccles., sect. ii, p. 439]. Now; it happened that Mar Catholicus had come to MARAGHAH [a town of ADHORBIJAN the capital of HULAGU KHAN], and they met him there. And at the sight of him their joy grew great, and their gladness was increased, and their minds were made to be at peace, and their anxious thoughts were set at rest. And they fell down on the ground before him, and they wept as they did homage to him (21) and they behaved as if they saw our Lord JESUS CHRIST in the person of MAR DENHA, the Catholicus. May his memory be for blessing! And they said unto him, "The mercies of God [shown to us] are many, and His grace is poured out abundantly upon us since

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we have seen the glorious and spiritual face of our General Father." And when he asked them, "Whence [come] ye?" they replied, "From the countries of the East, from KHAN BALIK, the city of the King of Kings [KUBLAI] KHAN. We have come to be blessed by you, and by the Fathers (i.e. Bishops), and the monks, and the holy men of this quarter of the world. And if a road [openeth] to us, and God hath mercy upon us, we shall go to JERUSALEM.

And when the Catholicus saw their tears, and that they were moved with gladness at their meeting with him, his mercy showed itself unto them, and he comforted them and said unto them, Assuredly, O my sons, the Angel of Providence shall protect you on this difficult journey, and he shall be a guide unto you until the completion of your quest. Let not your toil make you sad, for it is said in the Prophet (22) 'Those who sow in tears, shall reap in joy' (Ps. cxxvi. 5). That for which ye hope ye shall attain, and in return for the sufferings and tribulations which ye will have to bear, ye shall receive a perfect recompense and wages twofold in this world, and never-failing good things and never-ending delights in the world which is to come." And they did homage to him, and gave thanks to him.

And having enjoyed intercourse with him for a few days they brought forward [the following]

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request: " If we have found mercy (i.e. favour) in the eyes of Mar our Father, let him permit us to go to BAGHDAD, in order that we may receive a blessing from the holy sepulchres (or relics?) of MAR MARI [the disciple of Saint ADDAI, Bar Hebraeus, Chron. Eccles., sect. ii, p. 15], the Apostle, the teacher of the East, and those of the Fathers that are there. And from there we would go to the monasteries that are in the countries of BETH GARMAI and in NISIBIS that we may be blessed there also, and demand assistance."

And when the Catholicus saw the beauty of their object, and the innocence of their minds, and the honesty of their thoughts, he said unto them, "Go ye, my sons, and may Christ, the Lord of the Universe, grant unto you your petition (23) from His rich and overflowing treasury, and may He grant you a full measure of His grace, and may His compassion accompany you whithersoever ye go. And he wrote for them a pethikha (i.e. a letter of introduction) to these countries so that they might be honourably entreated whithersoever they went; and he sent with them a man to show them the way, and to act as guide along the roads.

And they arrived in Baghdad, and thence they went to the Great Church of KOKE [at Ctesiphon wherein every Catholicus was consecrated]. And they went to the monastery of MAR MARI, the Apostle, and received a blessing from the sepulchres

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(or relics?) of that country. And from there they turned back and came to the country of BETH GARMAI, and they received blessings from the shrine (or tomb) of MAR EZEKIEL [the prophet, near Dakok], which was full of helps and healings. And from there they went to ARBIL, and thence to MAWSIL (i.e. Mosul on the Tigris). And they went SHIGAR (SINJAR), and NISIBIS, and MERDA (MARDIN); and were blessed by the shrine [containing] the bones of MAR AWGIN, the second CHRIST. And thence they went to GAZARTA of BETH ZABHDAI, and they were blessed by all the shrines and monasteries, and the religious houses, and monks, and the Fathers (i.e. Bishops) in their dioceses. And they paid the vows which they had laid upon themselves, and they spread (24) tables of food [wherefrom all might eat], and they gave alms and oblations wherever they went. And they turned back and came to the holy monastery of MAR MICHAEL of TAR'IL. And they bought a cell, and both of them were received by the monks who were there. And the thought which made them toil through the journey had rest, although they had not arrived at the end of [their] expectation.

Now when MAR DENHA or DENKHA, the Catholicus, heard of their manner of life, he sent and asked them to go to him; and they went forthwith and gave him the customary salutation.

And he said unto them, " We have heard that ye

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have been received into a monastery. This however, doth not please us. For whilst the two of you sojourn in the monastery ye will be able to make perfect your own peace (or rest), and that is all that ye will do, but if ye abide with us ye will bring benefit and peace (or rest) to the whole community. Therefore stay ye with us, and support the Door of the Kingdom [compare Sublime Porte] in whatever manner cometh to your hands." And they said unto him, "Whatsoever thou commandest (25), O our Father, we will do." And the Catholicus said unto them, "Ye shall go to King ABGHA [or ABAGHA KHAN, or ABAKA KHAN, the son and successor of HULAGU KHAN, and great grandson of Chingiz Khan, who ascended the throne of Persia as the second Mongol Khan in 1265], and obtain for us PUKDANE (i.e. written orders, or letters patent confirming his appointment as Catholicus)." And the two monks said unto him, "Thus shall it be, but let Mar our Father send with us a man who shall take the Pukdana [from the king] and give it to him (i.e. the Catholicus), and we will go on from there to JERUSALEM." And the Catholicus granted them this [request], and gave them blessings on their journey.

And when the two monks went to the Blessed Camp, the Amirs brought them in before the King, and he asked them about the object of their coming, and what their native country was;

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and they made a reply to him which revealed unto him their object. And ABHGHA KHAN commanded the nobles of his kingdom to fulfil their petition, and to give them the written orders (Pukdane)which they had asked for. And the two monks sent the written order which Mar Catholicus had demanded to him by the hands of his messenger, and they and their companions set out for JERUSALEM.

And when they arrived at the city of Animto [i.e. ANI, the ancient capital of Christian ARMENIA, situated on an affluent of the river Araxes], and saw (26) the monasteries and the churches therein, they marvelled at the great extent of the buildings and at their magnificence. And thence they went towards BETH GURGAYE (i.e. the country of Georgia), so that they might travel by a clear (or safe?) road, but when they arrived there they heard from the inhabitants of the country that the road was cut because of the murders and robberies which had taken place along it.

Read more at The Monks of Kubla Khan

The Secret History of the Mongols

Igor De Rachewiltz (editor and translator)

Timothy May

Between 1971 and 1985, Igor de Rachewiltz published his translation of The Secret History of the Mongols (henceforth SHM) in eleven volumes of Papers on Far Eastern History. In addition to being a much easier read than the King James English used in Francis W. Cleaves’ translation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), it was accompanied by extensive footnotes commenting not only on the translation but also various aspects of Mongolian culture. While several other translations of the Secret History have emerged, none equaled Rachewiltz’s translation in terms of annotation or in the quality of the translation, although some approached it.

Unfortunately, using Rachewiltz’s original translation was often unwieldy due to it being published in 11 installments over a span of 14 years. Even for those who copied it and kept it in one volume or a folder, there was still the problem of ensuring a correct citation of proper volume and year. Thus it is not only with great pleasure, but also great relief to announce the publication of Igor de Rachewiltz’s translation of The Secret History of the Mongolsin Brill’s Inner Asian Library series.

Rachewiltz’s new edition of The Secret History of the Mongols is a substantial addition to the scholarship of the Mongol Empire, not only in terms of finally being published in a book format, but also the improvements to the translation. Consisting of 1347 pages in addition to 127 pages of front matter, it is truly a monumental work.

This edition, begun in 1987, includes an even smoother translation than previous editions and made a few passages more lucid than previously had been the case. Thus, without question, this translation of The Secret History of the Mongols remains the best, not only in terms of quality of translation, but also in terms of readability for the non-specialist. Yet, the improved translation is only the tip of the iceberg.

The introduction alone is a boon to the historiography of the Mongol Empire. In addition to discussing the origins and history behind SHM, Rachewiltz discusses the sizeable scholarship which has emerged on SHM, including not only other translations but studies on the work and its role in folklore, historical studies, as well as literature. Indeed, the introduction alone would have been a worthy monograph and a substantial contribution to scholarship.

This edition of The Secret History of the Mongols includes a series of photographs as well as two maps and a genealogical table of Chinggis Khan. One map is of modern Mongolia with its present day boundaries. However, as it is meant to depict Mongolia in 1200, the names of the various tribes of Mongolia and the neighboring realms have also been included. This is particularly useful for illustrating the localities of the tribes as well as many of the locations mentioned in SHMin a modern context. The second map is one of Eurasia in the thirteenth century. In addition to the names of the various regions, Rachewiltz has also included geographic names and those of various ethnicities used by the Mongols. Hence for Tibet, Rachewiltz has included Töböt, Sarta’ul for Khwârazm, and Bolar for the Volga Bulgars, etc.

As SHM has been rather arbitrarily divided into chapters, Rachewiltz has included a summary of the chapters. The summary is particularly useful; in addition to being a summation of the events of the chapter, Rachewiltz also succinctly summarizes the paragraphs (or verses if one may) comprising that chapter. Thus one now has a quick reference to guide one’s research. Finally, a chapter and paragraph concordance has been provided listing the paragraphs included in each chapter. It should be noted that the SHM was translated from Chinese texts. These were used to teach Chinese to translate Mongolian during the Ming period, with the Mongolian language represented phonetically through Chinese characters. In some manuscripts, SHM was divided into 12 chapters with others with 15 chapters. Prof. Rachewiltz has used the 12 chapter division of the 177 paragraphs for his organization of The Secret History of the Mongols.

The translation itself consists of 220 pages. The commentary on the translation is much more expansive, spanning 823 pages. While the text of the translation alters slightly from his previous translation, the commentary is, as one would suspect, much more comprehensive than Rachewiltz’s prior translation. Indeed, his discussion of the chapters, Rachewiltz cites the arguments and thoughts of other scholars. While competent and confident in his own translation, Rachewiltz is realistic in that he brings forth other possible interpretations of vague or problematic paragraphs. As such, the commentary is not so much a commentary on SHM but rather a compendium of research of the work.

Read more at http://www.deremilitari.org/REVIEWS/Rachewiltz_Mongols.htm

JAMES HUDSON TAYLOR (1832–1905) Founder of the China Inland Mission

 

Born at Barnsley, Yorkshire, England, May 21, 1832; died at Changsha, China, June 3, 1905. His father was an eloquent and able Methodist local preacher and his mother a woman of more than ordinary sweet and patient spirit. Hudson Taylor combined the ability of his father with the gentle disposition of his mother. He was converted through the reading of a tract at the age of fifteen, and not long afterward passed through a remarkable experience, at which time he dedicated himself to God for whatever service might be appointed. Unknown to himself, his father, who had been deeply interested in China, had prayed that his son might go to that land as a missionary, and very early, through the reading of Walter Henry Medhurst's China (London, 1838), the thoughts of young Taylor were directed to that country.

With a view to preparing himself for his life-work, he became an assistant to a physician at Hull, and subsequently studied medicine at the London Hospital. The great interest awakened in China through the Taiping rebellion, which was then erroneously supposed to be a mass movement toward Christianity, together with the glowing but exaggerated reports made by Carl Friedrich August Gutzlaff concerning China's accessibility, led to the founding of the China Evangelization Society, to the service of which Hudson Taylor offered himself and on Sept. 19, 1853, he sailed for China before the completion of his medical studies. The six years from 1854 to 1860 were spent in Shanghai, Swatow, and Ningpo, working sometimes in company with older missionaries of other societies and especially with William Chalmers Burns of the English Presbyterian Mission. During this period he retired from the China Evangelization Society, which subsequently ceased to exist, and continued as an independent worker, trusting God to supply his need. His experiences of God's faithfulness in meeting his own personal needs and the needs of a hospital at Ningpo, of which he had taken charge, had much to do with the subsequent step of founding the China Inland Mission. While at Ningpo he married Miss Maria Dyer, daughter of the Rev. Samuel Dyer of the London Missionary Society. Two of their children also worked as missionaries in China.

Poor health caused him to return to England in 1860 where he spent the next five years. In company with the Rev. Frederick Foster Cough of the Church Missionary Society, he completed the revision of a version of the New Testament in the colloquial of Ningpo for the British and Foreign Bible Society, and also finished his medical course. To arouse interest in the great Middle Kingdom he published a book entitled China, its Spiritual Need and Claims (London, 1875, 8th ed., 1890), which has been much used in calling forth sympathy for China and volunteers for the field, who began to go out in 1862, the first being James J. Meadows. In 1861, at Brighton, Taylor definitely dedicated himself to God for the founding of a new society to undertake the evangelization of inland China. In May, 1866, he, with his wife and children and a party of sixteen missionaries, sailed for China. Thus was definitely launched that organization which, on Jan. 1, 1911, had 968 missionaries (including wives) connected with it, and in the support of which more than £1,471,000 had been contributed in answer to prayer and without public or private solicitation of funds. From the founding of the mission in 1865 Taylor's time became more and more occupied as general director of a growing work. His duties necessitated extensive journeys in China and frequent visits to the home country. In 1888 a wider ministry was commenced through the formation of a home center in North America. This arose through Taylor's presence at the Northfield Convention. Two years later another center was founded in Australasia. Various visits to the continent of Europe led to the inception of associate missions, which recognized Taylor as their general director on the field. In Jan., 1911, these associate missions had 216 workers on the field.

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History of Christianity in China

The most widely accepted record of the earliest existence of Christianity in China is a stone stele dated 781 A.D. that detailed Christian missionaries’ activities and the propagation of the religion in China. Since being unearthed in Xi’an by accident in 1625, this stele has stood firm as the most authoritative piece of evidence relating to the earliest presence of Christianity in China.

The stele’s 1,900 word carvings describe a Syrian missionary monk Olopun’s arrival in the capital of China during the Tang Dynasty, Chang An (today’s Xi’an) in 635 A.D. It further states that the Gospel was translated in the imperial library and presented to the Emperor Taizong (599 – 649), who issued an imperial proclamation that says “having examined the principles of this religion, we find them to be purely excellent and natural…it is beneficial to all creatures, it is advantageous to mankind. Let it be published throughout the empire, and let the proper authority build a Syrian church in the capital…which shall be governed by twenty-one priests.”

Indeed, at least one large church was built outside of Xi’an, to which the stele was erected to commemorate. But the vulnerable sprout of Christianity soon faced virtual extinction as the most open chapter of Chinese history drew to a close. The Tang dynasty was in decline during the latter half of the ninth century. The once accommodating imperial court grew inward-looking and xenophobic. The headwind culminated when Emperor Wuzong (814 – 846), a zealous Taoist, decreed in 845 A.D. that all foreign religions be banned. In addition, the Silk Road, on which Olopun had traveled to reach China two hundred years ago, was taken over by Muslims, thus effectively shutting the path of Christian missionaries to China.

No record points to any notable Christian presence until four hundred years later during another period of cultural collision and integration in China, the Yuan dynasty (1271 – 1368). As the Mongol Empire extended westward to the Caspian Sea, Christian missionaries, this time directly commissioned by the Pope in Rome, came to China when the country fell to the rule of an invading people for the first time.
 Giovanni of Monte Corvine (1246 – 1329), a Franciscan missionary, arrived in the capital, Da Du (today’s Beijing) in 1294 A.D. Commissioned by Pope Nicholas to Father China, Monte Corvine had timing on his part. The Mongol emperor was tolerant to all forms of religion, Christianity included. Chinese society was finally enjoying peace and stability after years of turbulence. As a result, Monte Corvine was able to build churches around the capital and convert at least six thousand Chinese and Mongols.

His success so pleased the Pope that Clement V appointed him as Archbishop of Peking, and sent more missionaries to support him. Under Giovanni’s leadership, sizable Catholic communities thrived in the capital and in the southern port city of Quan Zhou.
The second emergence of Christianity in China featured a mixture of denominations. The Nestorian tradition, which had strong presence in Asia as attested by Marco Polo, co-existed with Catholicism and there seemed to be intense competition.

Like previous efforts, this round of missionary work was forced to stop. The short-lived Mongol Empire was crumbling with internal power struggles. Nearly a century of Mongol rule brewed anti-foreign bitterness among the Chinese population, who were treated as second-class citizens in their own land. Christianity was largely perceived as a foreign religion, with support from the Mongols and Rome. Therefore, as rebellions against the Mongols spread across the country, Christianity became a target. Moreover, the ruling Mongols, who were once favorable to Christians, were increasingly being converted to Islam. So one year after the establishment of the Ming dynasty by Han Chinese in 1368 A.D., all Christians — both the Catholics and Nestorians — were expelled from China. This is the second virtual extinction during Christianity’s long tortuous journey in China.

It would take more than two centuries before Christianity returned to China — and this time to settle. The New World had been discovered and the Protestant reformation was raging in Europe. Against such backdrop, both the denomination and the travel mode of the missions to China were significantly different. It was the highly educated Jesuits who arrived in Southern China via sea that would lift the curtain of the third emergence of Christianity in the Middle Kingdom.
The early part of this mission was defined by one of the mostly talented missionaries in history, an Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci.

After landing in the Portuguese trading enclave Macau in 1582, Ricci devoted himself to learning the Chinese language and culture. As he later moved into Southern China and then to the capital Peking, he translated Chinese classics and created the first Portuguese-Chinese dictionary. In theology, he adopted a more accommodating approach to Chinese traditions, trying to integrate Christianity into existing Chinese philosophy.
Ricci’s mission was a huge success culturally — he is commemorated as a cultural ambassador today.

By 1605, Ricci claimed there were more than one thousand Chinese converts. It grew to five thousand in ten years, a great number of them were court eunuchs and women. One of Ricci’s converts was the prominent scientist Xu Guangqi, who later was appointed grand secretary to the emperor and would be the first of many prominent Chinese Christians to come. The Cathedral of St. Ignatius or Xujiahui Church in Shanghai, which stands in the center of the city today, was built with Xu Guangqi’s help.

Like previous missionaries, the Jesuits sought to find an opening for Christianity through the Chinese imperial court. Ricci was granted access to the Forbidden City, though he did not meet with the Emperor Wanli. But Ricci’s fellow Jesuits, who carried on his work following his death in 1610, came close to converting the Chinese Emperor, Kangxi. Though never formally claimed being a Christian, Kang Xi wrote two poems that demonstrated his thorough understanding of the Gospel and affinity to Christianity belief.

But the Jesuits’ missionary success among the imperial and literary ruling class drew jealousy from other denominations, which were left to cultivate China’s lower classes. At the center of the issue was whether Chinese ancestor veneration was a cultural or spiritual phenomenon. The Jesuits believed that it was purely a cultural custom that did not conflict with the Christian faith. But other orders disagreed. The dispute had to be put before the Pope, who in the end publicly criticized the Jesuits for being too acquiescent to Chinese culture and compromising gospel truth.

When the Papal bull reached the emperor, Kangxi (who sided with the Jesuits on the issue) in 1715, it spelled disaster. Not accustomed to taking orders, Kangxi was infuriated. The goodwill built up by the Jesuits for more than one hundred years was replaced by vexation. Kangxi contemplated banning Christianity within China. His successor, Yongzheng, finally put it into law, issuing an edict of expulsion and confiscation in 1724. China’s three hundred churches were destroyed or confiscated. With no place of worship, the number of Chinese converts, estimated at 300,000, gradually dwindled over the next decades, though some Catholic missionary priests continued preaching in China at the risk of death.

As the nineteenth century dawned, protestant missionaries arrived in China for the first time. Despite its unpromising beginning, their missionary effort would shake the whole country with a number of prominent individual Christians. The first one is a Protestant convert Hong Xiuquan, who started the Taiping Rebellion from 1850 to 1864 that nearly toppled the Qing government.

Another individual is an English Protestant missionary, Hudson Taylor, who revolutionized Christian missions in China. As noted above, previous Christian missionaries sought to work among the ruling literal class. But Taylor had an audacious idea. He founded the China Inland Mission (CIM) with the aim to take the Gospel into the hearts of Mainland China. It was the first massive grassroots missionary effort ever taken place of this type in China. Taylor decided that CIM would be interdenominational and accepted single women as missionaries. It turned out to be a huge success. By 1895, there were 641 missionaries in every Chinese province except Tibet, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang.

As Chinese society struggled in turmoil at the turn of the twentieth century, Sun Yat-sen, an overseas Chinese Christian, rose to lead a revolution that gave birth to the Republic of China. The once unthinkable — that a Chinese leader would be a Christian — became a reality. Moreover, China’s next leader, Chiang Kai-shek, turned to Christianity in order to marry the future Madame Chiang Kai-shek (whose father was a Methodist) and Chiang was publicly baptized in 1930.
 Despite facing a deadly blow during the anti-foreign outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900s, Christianity’s presence in China is irreversible as its monarch rule came to an end.

The expulsion of foreign missionaries after 1949 opened a new chapter of Christianity in China as the Chinese government tried to gain full control of all religions. Over a thousand years since the Nestorian monks’ arrival in Xi’an, and against a culture (namely, Confucianism) that has no place for God, Christianity was playing critical roles in education, medicine, science and society. In 1949, Chinese Christians numbered approximately three million Catholics and around 800,000 Protestants. Today, China’s Christian population has grown to over one hundred million, combined, according to various unofficial estimates

Christians in China

Olopun

THE NESTORIAN TABLET

In the time of the accomplished Emperor Tai-tsung, the illustrious and magnificent founder of the dynasty, among the enlightened and holy men who arrived was the most-virtuous Olopun, from the country of Syria. Observing the azure clouds, he bore the true sacred books; beholding the direction of the winds, he braved difficulties and dangers. In the year of our Lord 635 he arrived at Chang-an; the Emperor sent his Prime Minister, Duke Fang Hiuen-ling; who, carrying the official staff to the west border, conducted his guest into the interior; the sacred books were translated in the imperial library, the sovereign investigated the subject in his private apartments; when becoming deeply impressed with the rectitude and truth of the religion, he gave special orders for its dissemination.

 In the seventh month of the year A.D. 638 the following imperial proclamation was issued:

 "Right principles have no invariable name, holy men have no invariable station; instruction is established in accordance with the locality, with the object of benefiting the people at large. The greatly virtuous Olopun, of the kingdom of Syria, has brought his sacred books and images from that distant part, and has presented them at our chief capital. Having examined the principles of this religion, we find them to be purely excellent and natural; investigating its originating source, we find it has taken its rise from the establishment of important truths; its ritual is free from perplexing expressions, its principles will survive when the framework is forgot; it is beneficial to all creatures; it is advantageous to mankind. Let it be published throughout the Empire, and let the proper authority build a Syrian church in the capital in the I-ning May, which shall be governed by twenty-one priests. When the virtue of the Chau Dynasty declined, the rider on the azure ox ascended to the west; the principles of the great Tang becoming resplendent, the Illustrious breezes have come to fan the East."

 Orders were then issued to the authorities to have a true portrait of the Emperor taken; when it was transferred to the wall of the church, the dazzling splendor of the celestial visage irradiated the Illustrious portals. The sacred traces emitted a felicitous influence, and shed a perpetual splendor over the holy precincts. According to the Illustrated Memoir of the Western Regions, and the historical books of the Han and Wei dynasties, the kingdom of Syria reaches south to the Coral Sea; on the north it joins the Gem Mountains; on the west it extends toward the borders of the immortals and the flowery forests; on the east it lies open to the violent winds and tideless waters. The country produces fire-proof cloth, life-restoring incense, bright moon-pearls, and night-luster gems. Brigands and robbers are unknown, but the people enjoy happiness and peace. None but Illustrious laws prevail; none but the virtuous are raised to sovereign power. The land is broad and ample, and its literary productions are perspicuous and clear.

 The Emperor Kau-tsung respectfully succeeded his ancestor, and was still more beneficent toward the institution of truth. In every province he caused Illustrious churches to be erected, and ratified the honor conferred upon Olopun, making him the great conservator of doctrine for the preservation of the State. While this doctrine pervaded every channel, the State became enriched and tranquillity abounded. Every city was full of churches, and the royal family enjoyed luster and happiness. In the year A.D. 699 the Buddhists, gaining power, raised their voices in the eastern metropolis; in the year A.D. 713, some low fellows excited ridicule and spread slanders in the western capital. At that time there was the chief priest Lohan, the greatly virtuous Kie-leih, and others of noble estate from the golden regions, lofty-minded priests, having abandoned all worldly interests; who unitedly maintained the grand principles and preserved them entire to the end. The high-principled Emperor Hiuen-tsung caused the Prince of Ning and others, five princes in all, personally to visit the felicitous edifice; he established the place of worship; he restored the consecrated timbers which had been temporarily thrown down; and re-erected the sacred stones which for a time had been desecrated.

 In A.D. 742 orders were given to the great general Kau Lih-sz', to send the five sacred portraits and have them placed in the church, and a gift of a hundred pieces of silk accompanied these pictures of intelligence. Although the dragon's beard was then remote, their bows and swords were still within reach; while the solar horns sent forth their rays, and celestial visages seemed close at hand. In A.D. 744 the priest Kih-ho, in the kingdom of Syria, looking toward the star [of China], was attracted by its transforming influence, and observing the sun [i.e., the Emperor], came to pay court to the most honorable. The Emperor commanded the priest Lo-han, the priest Pu-lun, and others, seven in all, together with the greatly virtuous Kih-ho, to perform a service of merit in the Hing-king palace. Thereupon the Emperor composed mottoes for the sides of the church, and the tablets were graced with the royal inscriptions; the accumulated gems emitted their effulgence, while their sparkling brightness vied with the ruby clouds; the transcripts of intelligence suspended in the void shot forth their rays as reflected by the sun; the bountiful gifts exceeded the height of the southern hills; the bedewing favors were deep as the eastern sea. Nothing is beyond the range of the right principle, and what is permissible may be identified; nothing is beyond the power of the holy man, and that which is practicable may be related.

Read more at stetson edu

Assyrian Christian Missions in China 635 - 1550 AD

The Theology of the Church of the East has been stated briefly and clearly in the following “Hymn of Praise (TESHBOKHTA)?nbsp; Composed by Mar Babai the Great in the sixth century A.D.,
a noted theologian of the Church

One is Christ the Son of God,
Worshiped by all in two natures;
In His Godhead begotten of the Father,
Without beginning before all time;
In His humanity born of Mary,
In the fullness of time, in a body united;
Neither His Godhead is of the nature of the mother,
Nor His humanity of the nature of the Father;
The natures are preserved in their Qnumas*,
In one person of one Sonship.
And as the Godhead is three substances in one nature,
Likewise the Sonship of the Son is in two natures, one person.
So the Holy Church has taught.

* Qnuma, is an Aramaic word. The nearest equivalent is the Greek “hypostasis? in Latin “substantia?and in English “substance?

In the time of the Emperor Taitsung, in the year AD 635 an Assyrian man named Olopun arrived at Chang-an (Hsian-Fu), China and was received by the prime minister, Duke Fan Hiuen-ling. Olopun translated the holy book into Chinese, and in July 638 AD the emperor issued a proclamation ordering the publication and dissemination of this Chinese translation of the Holy Bible. The emperor also ordered the building of an Assyrian church in the capital of the I-ning May; this church was to be governed by 21 priests.

The next emperor, Kausung honored emperor Taitsung' proclamation. During his time churches were being built in every province in China, he also appointed Olopun as the great conservator of doctrine for the preservation of the state.

On January 7, 781 AD, the year of Kienchung of the Tang dynasty, the Assyrian christian (Nestorian) Monument was erected to commemorate the diffusion of christianity in China. The monument bore Syro-Chinese inscriptions composed by an Assyrian priest from Persia (Iran) named Adam, also known As Ching-tsing in Chinese, he was a monk of the Ta-ts'in monastery.

The Assyrian monk, Adam(Ching-tsing) is mentioned in a contemporary buddist work entitled Cheng-Yuan Hsin-ting shih-chiao-mo-lu, meaning, "The New Catalogue of the teaching of Sakya" in The period of cheng-yuan (AD 785-804).

Professor Saeki mentions that Japanese buddism borrowed the wedding religious ceremony from the Assyrians as well as the feast of departed souls, "Yu Lan P'en".

In AD 845 persecution of the Assyrian and Chinese Christians of the Assyrian Church of the East began by the emperor Wu-tsung. These persecutions lead to the burying of the Assyrian monument to save it from destruction. The monument remained burried untill February 1625 when some workmen digging a foundation at a place not far from His-an-fu came across a large stele burried underground.

A pagan friend of a Christian mandarin happen to witness the discovery of the monument. This pagan man sent a copy of the monument to his mandarin Christian friend, Leo, who lived in Han chow. It is believed that this Leo was none other than the celebrated Catholic letteratus, Li Chih-tsao (1570- 1670). Through him the news of the discovery of the Assyrian monument reached the Jesuits at Peking and elsewhere. Nicholas Trigault, a french Jesuit father visited the monument in October 1625 and soon after, the discovery was announced throughout China and Europe.

It was not till 1817 that the inscription of the Assyrian monument was for the first time made known to the Japanese. In that year, many books were imported from China and among them was a a book entitled "A great Collection of Inscriptions on stone and metal". This book was compiled by Wang Ch'ang in 1805 and it contained the inscription from the famous Assyrian monument. The Japanese Inspector-General of Publication Imported Books was Kondo Seisai and as soon as he read the Assyrian inscription, he concluded it had to do with Christianity, which was then strictly forbidden by the Shogun's law, and he consequently declared the whole book by Wang Ch'ang prohibited in Japan. Almost sixty years later in 1876, the London Bible and Tract Society published Dr. Martin's Chinese book entitled "T'ien Tao Su Yuan", meaning "The Way of Heaven Traced to its Origin". This book contained the Assyrian inscription from the Assyrian Monument and it contained Japanese reading marks added to the Chinese text. Twenty years later, Dr. Takakusu published a very interesting and valuable article in the well-known journal "T'oung Pao". In this article he wrote about his discovery of the name "Ching-ching", Adam, the name of the Assyrian priest from Persia (Iran) who composed the inscription. This article also speaks of the genuineness of the monument. The Honorable Mrs. E.A. Gordon set up the replica of the Assyrian monument at the top of Mount Koya, the holy land of Japan, on the 3rd of October 1911; she also wrote a very interesting article entitled "On Kobo Daishi and the Nestorians in China".

The name of the city "Hsi-an-fu" has been spelled and pronounced in so many different ways, here is a list of some of the other spellings and pronounciations:      Hsi-an, Si-an, Si-gan, Sengan, Si-ngan, Hsingan, Ching-chao yin, Yung-chou (Chung-chao), Shang-tu (Ching-chao-fu).

Hsi-an-fu is located at 109 30' longtiude and 34 17' North latitude. The eastern part of Hsi-an-fu, known as Hsien-ning there is a place known as "Pei-lin", meaning "Forest of Tablest", this is where the Chinese kept the precious stone monuments of the city. The Assyrian Monument was kept here since October 2, 1907, well protected from wind and rain. Just before it was moved to "Pei-lin", there was an attempt by some foreigner to buy the Assyrian Monument for 3,000 teals in order that he might sell it to the British Museum. This event startled the Governor of the Province of Shensi, that he ordered the moving of the Assyrian Monument to the forest of tablets, and it was ordered that no one without prermission from the proper government authorities was allowed to come near the monument. Later that year the Han-Kow Daily News had published an article regarding the attempt by one Danish journalist named Mr. Fritz Von Holm who after failing to purchase the original Assyrian monument had tried to get a replica and still failed.

Mr. Fritz Von Holm writes the following: I did everything in my power to obtain the original by applying to the local authorities in an indirect manner; but although the Chinese do not care more today for the stone than for any ordinary brick, they at once got suspicious; and I might as well have endeavoured to lift the Rosetta Stone out of the British Museum, or take the Moabite Stone from the Louvre, as to carry away the Ching-chiao-pei from Hsi-an!".

"This replica is one of the most beautiful pieces of Chinese workmanship I have ever seen. In the first place, there is not a measure, not a character, not a detail that differs from the original tablet, even the weight is the same. In the second place, this piece of art was executed by four native stone-cutters in eleven days, including polishing after the huge slabs had been brought from the Fu-P'ing quarries to Hsi-an. In the third place, the Chinese artisans have been able to accomplish the miracle of carving the Cross and chiselling the Syriac characters, which they did not of course know, to absolute perfection".

On the 16th of June, 1908, in accordance with the arrangement with Sir Purdon Clarke, Director, the replica was deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, as a loan.

The second replica, made by Mr. Fritz Von Holm, was set up at the top of Mt. Koya, Japan on September 21, 1911 and was dedicated with full Buddhist ceremonial on Sunday, October 3, 1911. Annually, over one half of a million pilgrims of all ages and classes and from all parts of Japan climb the Holy Mountain to visit the tomb of Kobo Daishi in the Okuno-in, so that the Assyrian Monument is sure to speak aloud and strongly in God's due time!.

The Monument is ten feet high by 3,1/3 feet wide and just under one foot thick and it weighs two tons. It is made of a black, sub-granular oolitic limestone. The figure-head decoration of the tablet consists of an immense pearl between two creatures called "Kumbhira", described by Dr. Eitel as a monster with the body of a fish, but shaped like a snake and carrying pearls in its tail; others have described it as a four-footed crocodile over 20 feet long.

The pearl is called "hoshu" or "tama" in Japanese, and in Sanscrit chindamani; it is believed that the pearl symbol has a regular Assyrian (Nestorian) significance. Arthur John Maclean wrote in the "East Syrian Daily Offices:    "O illustrious martyr, Mar Sergius! A pearl wihtout flaw. A light hath shone in thy soul: thou hast bought it with they blood, and become rich thereby".

The "Kumbhira" design at the head of the stone is thoroughly Buddhistic. It is a Hindoo idea which the Assyrian Missionaries adopted; this "Kumhira" design was quite common at the time as seen in other monuments in Seoul in Korea.

In the center of the figured-head, right under the Pearl is the apex of a triangle, which forms a canopy over nine clearly carved large Chinese characters arranged vertically in three lines which form the "Titular Heading" of the stone. The literal translation of these 9 Chinese characters is "The Monument Commemorating the Propagation of the Ta-Ch'in Luminous Religion in the Middle Kingdom.".

The Cross on the stone is not very clear and must be searched for to be seen. It is said that the form of the cross is a copy from the memory of the Roman Papal Cross of the sixth century; but it somehow resembles that on St. Thomas' tomb in Meliapo, south India. Beneath the Cross, there is the cloud, a characterstic symbol of Taoists as well as Muslims in China and beneath this cloud there lies a Lotus-flower which is a characteristic emblem of the Buddhists.

Below this comes an inscription consisting of one thousand nine hundred Chinese characters and about fifty Syriac words, besides some seventy Sryiac names in rows on the narrow sides of the stone with the corresponding Chinese characters denoting the Chinese synonyms or phonetics for the Syriac names.

There were three or four theories as to where this monument was discovered. Martini's theory insisted that the stone was first dug out at an old town called "San-Yuan" located 35 miles North of "Hsi-an-fu". Secondly, Lin Lai-Chai asserted that the monument was found in the suburb of "Hsi-an-fu". Thirdly, Pere Havret, in his book "La Stele Chrestienne d-Si-ngan-fou" concluded, the monument was discovered at or near "Chou-Chihi" which is 30 miles from "Hsi-an-fu". He supports his theory with quotes from some rare books on the monument as well as documents preserved at Rome by authors such as Kircher, Trigault, Bartoli, Thomas Ignace Dunyn-Szpot and Antoine de Gouvea. The fourth theory, that of Emanuel Diaz and Alvarez Semedo insist on the stone being found in the neighbourhood of "Hsi-an-fu". This theory is strongly supported by the writings of two of the most famous Chinese Christians of the time, Dr. Leon Li and Dr. Paul Hsu.

When the famous missionary Alvarez Semedo visited the Assyrian monument in "Hsi-an-fu" in 1628 AD, he could not decipher the curious foreign writing so he went to "Cochin-China" to consult Pere Antony Fernandez, knowing that he was well versed in reading the books of the Christians of St. Thomas (Assyrians). Fernandez assured Semedo that the writing was in the Syriac font of Estrangelo.

The Syriac text was translated into Latin by Nicholas Trigault, a member of the Society for Jesus. In 1628 A.D. an annonymous translation from Latin to French appeared and in 1631 A.D. a complete Italian translation was made from Protuguese, probably by Alvarea Semedo.

Translations into English were made much later by the historian Edward Gibbon and during the 19th century other translations were made such scholars as Dr. Bridgman in 1845, Alexander Wylie in 1854 and Dr. Legge in 1888.

The Syriac inscription indicates the time when the monument was first erected to be "in the days of the father of fathers, my lord Hanan-Ishu, Catholicos, Patriarch", "In the year one thousand and ninety-two of the Greeks", calculating to 781 A.D. Some argue that according to the great Assyrian Orientalist, J.S. Assemani that Patriarch Hanan-Ishu died in 778 A.D. However it is also accepted that in those days, news from Baghdad, where the official seat of the Assyrian Church of The East, to China would take a few years to travel.

In a book entitled "Spring and Autumn", compiled by Confucius in 481 B.C., it mentions of "the arrival of the white foreigners"; an indication that people from the Roman Empire, Persia or Assyria were already in China duirng this time.

In 845 A.D., an imperial edict ordered the destruction of the Buddist temples and monesteries and that foreign missionaries to return to secular life and cease their religious work. Assyrian Missions received a great blow from their imperial edict. Native-born Christians of the Assyrian Church in China, were integrated with the mass of the Chinese population and disolved. However they did not totally disappear, but remnanets of the Assyrian Christians were discovered in China. It is believed these Assyrians, later by the 14th century were absorbed with Chinese Muslims. As for those Assyrian Missionaries who survived Emperor Wu-Tsung's persecutions of 845 A.D., some remained in China, but most of them returned to western Turkey.

The Chinese Christians who did not join the Muslim body may be found among the "Secret Societies," of which about ten are known. (1) Fa-luChiao; (2) T'ai-yang Chiao; (3) Pai- yun Chiao; (4) Chao-kuan Chiao; (5) Wu-wie Chiao; (6) Chin-tan Chiao; (7) Pai-lien Chiao; (8) Pa-kua Chiao; (9) Tzumu-Chiao; (10) Shen-hsien Chiao.

http://www.edessa.com/history/monument.htm

Christianity: China's best bet?

As more Chinese turn to Christianity, the state is torn between embracing its benefits and the desire to assert control.

There are more than 55,000 churches in China, with more being built to accommodate the growing number of churchgoers [EPA]

Every night, when Yang prays with her seven-year-old daughter, she knows that she is doing something illegal. Like millions of other Chinese Christians, Yang refuses to be a member of one of the official state-sanctioned churches. Instead, she gathers twice a week with two dozen other Protestants in a private living room to pray and sing - far away from the gaze of the Communist Party.

She says she is not opposed to the Chinese government at all, but just wants the freedom of religion that is guaranteed in the Chinese constitution. And she wants her daughter to grow up as a Christian. In China's state-sanctioned churches it is prohibited to share faith with anyone younger than 18.

"Our life has become so hectic, there is so much pressure. When my husband left me, I was devastated. But one of my friends took me to one of their gatherings and I realised that someone loves me. I want my daughter to grow up knowing that there is more in life than just money. I want her to care more about other people," Yang says.

China is witnessing a renaissance of faith, especially Christianity [EPA]

Officially atheist, Communist China is witnessing a massive rise in religiosity. Recent surveys have found that one in every three Chinese consider themselves to be religious.

"All Chinese religions have been growing, especially popular or 'folk religion'," explains Daniel Bays, a professor of history and the director of the Asian Studies programme at Calvin College in Michigan.

"Protestant Christianity seems to be growing fastest, because it is congregational, providing a social-belonging aspect, leaders can be self-proclaimed, not needing formal credentials."

Historically, China's policies on religion have veered between approval, bloody repression and grudging tolerance.

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, the new regime was largely tolerant of religion, believing it to be a backward vestige of the country's imperial past and thus doomed to extinction. But, like other religions, Christianity suffered during the mass nationalism and atheism of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, it was viewed as a foreign doctrine that served the interests of capitalist imperialism - an ideology that led to decades of bloody persecution.

Read more at Aljazeera

China seeks tips on how to boost Christianity

A section of Christians attending a crusade at Nakuru showground. A delegation from China is in Kenya to “copy good practices” that could help it grow Christianity within its borders. PHOTO/JOSEPH KIHERI

China wants to use Kenya to promote Christianity within its borders.

An 11-member delegation from the Far East country led by State for Religious Affairs minister Wang Zuoan is in Kenya to “copy good practices” that could help it grow Christianity.

The delegation, which is on a seven-day visit, will also find ways in which Christians in China can work with Kenyan churches, Mr Wang said.

There are five main religions in China: Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity.

However, Christians have faced persecution.

The majority of Chinese are Buddhists (66 per cent), while Taoists make up 30 per cent of the population. Christians and Muslims are a minority.

Although Mr Wang put the number of Christians at 23 million, other sources say the figure is more than 40 million as many of them do not want to be known for fear of oppression.

But on Friday, the minister, whose team met Anglican archbishop Eliud Wabukhala, said China had adopted a policy of reform.

“We have freedom of religious belief. We used to treat Christians as foreigners but we now treat them as our people. We have come to learn from Kenyans their good practices.

“This is the first religious visit by a Chinese delegation to Kenya. Religion is good for development,” the minister said at Bishop’s Gardens in Nairobi.

Read more at Daily Nations

China blames monks for Tibetan unrest

 

BEIJING — China on Tuesday blamed Buddhist monks for causing unrest in a Tibetan region, accusing them of disrupting social order and defaming their religion.

The foreign ministry refused to confirm allegations two Tibetans were killed in a security crackdown at the Kirti Monastery in the southwestern province of Sichuan, but gave the clearest official acknowledgement yet of unrest there.

"In recent days, a small number of monks in Kirti Monastery in Aba county, Sichuan have disrupted social order and disobeyed Tibetan Buddhist rules," foreign ministry spokesman Hong Lei told reporters.

They have "disrupted local normal order, defamed the image of Tibetan Buddhism and harmed the feelings of Buddhist followers."

According to the US-based International Campaign for Tibet, unrest in the Chinese region erupted in March when a young monk set himself on fire and died in an apparent anti-government protest.

On Thursday last week, paramilitary police raided the monastery and took away more than 300 monks. Authorities also started a re-education programme at Kirti, the group said.

Read more at Google Hosted News

Religions of China

As the high-paced modern world reaches more of China's people, an abundance of the population are again turning to the temples and churches across the country to try and find answers. However, half a century of religious repression is a tough thing to overcome, and though some are looking for spiritual enlightenment, many are just there to pray to be included in the boom.

People come to China for numerous, and diverse reasons, but one that continually pops up is to explore the country's Buddhist and Daoist culture. Should you arrive and find it, please let us here at Lost Laowai know.

What there are an abundance of are a multi-coloured collection of temples subscribing to any number of beliefs that will deliver them to the ultimate enlightenment, the almighty yuan. This may seem a little harsh, especially for those that were banking on adding a physical and tangible element to what has become part of their core spiritual values in the West. Unfortunately, it is more often than not the truth.

Buddhism and Daoism have become quite contemporary ideologies in many English speaking countries in recent years - and rightfully so, as many of the principles in both doctrines speak about concepts that we might all learn something from. However, just as many of the initial ideas and values of Western religions (namely Judeo-Christian beliefs) have been superseded by the modern times in which we live, so too have the values of Siddhartha and Laozi in current-day China.

Let's be clear. China does have a large collection of temples (in old locales, but with wet paint) well populated by monks in yellow robes. To the two-week visitor, this just might be the taste of old-world China they're looking for. But it should be considered that religion was for a long time outright banned in China, and is now only mildly tolerated. What this means is, as long as it doesn't conflict with the current state of affairs in-country it will be allowed to operate. The country wants to grow. It wants to be rich. So long as the monks are helping this ideal along or not creating waves, and the visitors are both giving money in the form of buying "blessed" trinkets and incense, and praying that the coming year will bring them prosperity - all is harmonious.

Read more at Lost Laowai

Chinese bishops elect leaders amid Vatican tensionsctioned

Beijing: China's state-sanctioned Catholic Church said on Thursday bishops had elected a new leadership amid a spike in tension with the Vatican, which has criticised a controversial recent ordination.

Chinese bishops elected a new chairman -- Bishop Fang Xingyao -- of the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, which controls the state-backed church, the association's vice-president Liu Bainian told a news agency.

Ma Yinglin was also named head of the council of Chinese bishops, he added.

The election has attracted controversy due to reports by a Vatican-linked news agency that authorities forcibly brought a number of bishops to Beijing for the meeting, while others have gone into hiding to avoid taking part.

The patriotic association does not acknowledge the authority of Pope Benedict XVI and is fiercely opposed to clergy in China who are loyal to the Vatican.

The nominations come after already rocky China-Vatican relations were shaken further last month by the ordination of Father Guo Jincai in the northern city of Chengde, which was not approved by the Holy See.

"China's Catholics have the right to elect their own bishops. The Vatican does not understand China's situation," Liu told the agency.

China's foreign ministry spokeswoman Jiang Yu said during a regular press briefing Thursday that Beijing hoped the Holy See would "take concrete actions to create conditions for the development of China-Vatican relations."

She gave no specifics.

The Vatican and China have not had formal diplomatic ties since 1951, when the Holy See angered Mao Zedong's Communist government by recognising the Nationalist Chinese regime as the legitimate government of China.

The Nationalists had fled to Taiwan after losing a civil war with the Communists in 1949. As such, the Vatican is one of the few states that recognises the island, which Beijing considers part of its own territory.

Liu also called on the Vatican to cut diplomatic relations with Taiwan, adding China hoped to improve ties with the Holy See.

Official tallies put the number of Catholics in China at 5.7 million, including members of both the unofficial and official churches.

Human rights groups say that those who remain loyal to the Vatican often suffer persecution, with detentions of bishops common.

zeenews

Vatican threatens new China bishop with excommunication

The ordination of Rev Joseph Guo Jincai was carried out at Chengde's Pingquan Church

The Vatican has threatened a bishop with excommunication after he was ordained by China's state-backed Catholic Church without papal approval.

Pope Benedict XVI had learned of the ordination of Rev Joseph Guo Jincai "with deep regret" as it constituted a "grave violation" of Church law, it said.

The Vatican also accused Beijing of "grave violations of freedom of religion and conscience" because it forced Vatican-approved bishops to attend the ceremony.

China's estimated 10 million Catholics are split between followers of the Pope and members of the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association.

The association is not in communion with Rome and refuses to accept the sole authority of the Pope to appoint new bishops.

Rev Guo, who was ordained in the north-eastern city of Chengde amid high security, is the organisation's deputy leader.

Read more at The BBC

China earns newfound respect with Mashair

Made in China" is no longer a taboo label, thanks to Mashair railway. (AN photo)

MINA: Perhaps the most notable improvement of Saudi Arabia’s many projects to accommodate Haj pilgrims is the railway that shuttled tens of thousands of people around the holy sites.

As the modern, high-tech trains picked up and dropped off passengers, they created  a newfound respect for Chinese-made products and Chinese-engineering prowess. Officials said the multibillion-riyal project that was started last year will about triple its capacity from present levels when completed in 2012. Nonetheless, the rail system has already alleviated vehicular traffic around Mina and made travel for many pilgrims a snap.

The Sino-Saudi relationship has been growing over the last decade as China has sought more fossil fuels to power its economic growth. Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah helped realign the nation’s trade relationships with the implementation of a “Look East” policy, which has fostered imports of heavy machinery and construction equipment as well as consumer goods. China has also raised the quality of its exported goods to fight earlier perceptions that its exports were inferior to products manufactured elsewhere.

“We would go to shopping malls and ask for Made-in-Germany and Made-in-Japan stuff. We would look down upon Made-in-China stuff,” said Suleiman Al-Hatrash, a social-sciences teacher at an Abha college. “We started taking China seriously when we went to the Western countries and saw their shopping malls filled with Made-in-China goods.”

However, the state-of-the-art rail system is changing peoples’ perceptions about China almost as fast as it is whisking passengers around Mina.

“People couldn’t believe their eyes when they saw pilgrims being ferried between the holy sites of Mina, Muzdalifah and Arafat,” said journalist Hadi Fakihi. “Those who rode the train were gushing about its high-tech aspects. China has overnight become a nation to respect and emulate.”

Read more at Arab News

China church ordains bishop over Vatican objection

CHENGDE, China -- China's government-backed Catholic church ordained a bishop who did not have the pope's approval Saturday, despite objections from the Vatican and comments by a key papal adviser that the move was "illegitimate" and "shameful."

The Rev. Guo Jincai's ordination at Pingquan Church in Chengde city was carried out amid strong security, with dozens of police blocking the building and denying entrance to reporters. But there was also an air of festivity, with colorful banners and traditional Chinese lanterns hanging outside the church and worshippers posing for photos.

China's first ordination without papal approval in almost five years threatens to hurt the officially atheist country's already shaky relations with the Vatican, and the Holy See had warned reconciliation efforts would be set back if bishops were forced to attend.

Eight Vatican-approved bishops participated in the ceremony, according to AsiaNews, a Vatican-affiliated missionary news agency that closely covers the church in China. Three of them, Monsignors Jei Junmin of Liaoning, Li Lianggui of Cangzhou and Feng Xinmao of Hengshui, had been sequestered by the government a few days ago to pressure them into participating, AsiaNews said, citing Chinese Catholic sources.

Read more at The Washington Post

Cardinals Talk Religious Freedom Amid China Flap

Pope Benedict XVI delivers his message to cardinals he summoned for a day of reflection at the Vatican, Friday, Nov. 19, 2010, the day before a ceremony to create 24 new cardinals. The top agenda, religious freedom, grew remarkably timely given China's planned ordination Saturday of a bishop who doesn't have the Pope's approval. The Vatican warned China that efforts at reconciliation would be set back if bishops loyal to the pope were forced to attend the ordination. The Vatican said such actions would constitute "grave violations of freedom of religion and freedom of conscience.''

The world's cardinals met Friday at the Vatican to discuss religious freedom, sex abuse by clergy and other issues amid a new dispute with China over an illicit ordination that threatens delicate relations between the two.

Pope Benedict XVI summoned the cardinals for a day of reflection before a ceremony Saturday to create 24 new cardinals. The top agenda item, religious freedom, was remarkably timely given China's planned ordination Saturday of a bishop who doesn't have the pope's approval.

The Vatican warned China on Thursday that efforts at reconciliation would be set back if bishops loyal to the pope were forced to attend the ordination. The Vatican said such actions would constitute "grave violations of freedom of religion and freedom of conscience."

Liu Bainian, vice chairman for China's state-backed church, the Catholic Patriotic Association, said Friday the ordination was going ahead but that the presence of other bishops at the ceremony was voluntary.

As he arrived Friday for the Vatican meeting, Hong Kong Cardinal Joseph Zen, an outspoken advocate of democracy and religious freedom in China, sharply rebuked China for proceeding with the ordination.

Read more at NPR